Battle of White Mountain (1620)

Battle of White Mountain is a decisive battle near Prague at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War. The Battle of White Mountain was the first major battle of the Thirty Year’s War.

In 1526, Ferdinand I, the rule of Austria, had conquered Bohemia and imposed the rule of the Roman Catholic Habsburg dynasty over the kingdom. In 1618, in what is known as the Bohemian Revolt, Protestant Bohemians attempted to rid their kingdom of Catholic rule by the Habsburg.

The Catholic forces of Maximilian I, duke of Bavaria, commanded by count von Tilly, defeated the Protestant forces of Frederick V, king of Bohemia. The combined imperial and league forces, numbering 28,000 met the Bohemian army of about 21,000 men about one-half mile west of Prague on 8 November 1620.

Christian, Prince of Anhalt, commander of the Bohemian n forces had posted his troops on the White Mountain in a strong defensive position.

The force blocked the road to Prague and waited for Tilly to arrive. He failed to attack Tilly’s forces while they were passing a little brook on the battlefield.

By the defeat, Bohemia lost its independence, and Protestantism was exterminated until 1648. The battle did not destroy the entire Bohemian military forced but the psychological impact of the defeat was so strong that Frederick V of the Palatine, the elected Bohemian king, fled immediately.
Battle of White Mountain (1620)

The Bohemian Revolt

The Bohemian Revolt
By the beginning of the seventeenth century Catholicism and Protestantism had achieved a rough equality within the German states, symbolized by the fact that of the seven electors who chose the Holy Roman Emperor, three were Catholic, three protestant and the seventh was emperor himself, acting as king of Bohemia.

But the delicate religious balance in central Europe presented difficulties as well as advantages. The appearance of Calvinism in Germany led to more Protestants converts the appearance of the Counter Reformation to more Catholic re-conversions,. Each change heightened anxieties. Every diplomatic marriage or contested inheritance threatened to upset balance. Protestant and Catholic states, fearful of the power of their rivals, formed separates defensive alliances. The arming of one camp incited the arming of the other.

Matters came to ahead in 1617 when Mathias, the childless Holy Roman Emperor, began making plans for his cousin, Ferdinand Habsburg, to succeed him. In order to ensure a Catholic majority among the electors, the Emperor relinquish his Bohemian title and pressed for Ferdinand election as the new king of Bohemian. On his own estates, Ferdinand abandoned the policy of toleration, Jesuit schools were founded and the precepts of the Council of Trent were enforced. Protestant preachers were barred from their office, their books publicly burned and thousands of common people were force to flee.

In May 1618 in Prague, a group of noblemen marched to the royal palace, found two king’s chief advisers and hurled them out of an upper story window. The official’s lives, if not their dignity, were preserved by the pile of manure in which they landed. This incident came to be known as The Defenestration of Prague.

This initiate a Protestant counter offensive throughout the Habsburg lands. Fear of Ferdinand’s policies led to Protestant uprising sin Hungary, as well as Bohemia. Those who seized control of government declared Ferdinand deposed and the throne vacant.
When Emperor Mathias died in 1619, the stalemate broken, Ferdinand succeeded to Imperial title as Ferdinand II (1619 – 1637) and Ferdinand V, one of the Protestant electors, accepted the Bohemian crown.
The Bohemian Revolt

The French wars of religion

The French wars of religion
No wars are more terrible than civil wars. They tear at the very fabric of society, rending its institutions and destroying the delicate web of relationships that underlie all communal life. The nation is divided communities break into factions; families are destroyed. At every level of organization the glue that binds society together comes unstuck.

For nearly half century civil war tore France apart. Massacres of Catholic congregations matched massacres of Protestants ones. Assassinations of Catholic leaders followed assassinations of Protestants ones. Kings of France died at the hands of their subjects. Leaders of Protestants and Catholic movements died by the order of the king, Aristocratic armies roamed the country wreaking havoc on friend and foe alike. Indeed, the religious causes that brought the wars about were soon forgotten.

Protestantism came late to France. The unyielding hostility of the monarchy had prevented Lutheran reforms from making much headway there. Through a series of concessions made by the papacy in the fifteenth century and codified in the Concordat of Bologna (1516), the French kings had gained the right too make ecclesiastical appointments and thus controlled much of the wealth of the Church.

Lutheranism held little attraction for Francis I (1515-1547) and he rigorously suppressed it, sending John Calvin among others, into exile. The Catholic church directed by the monarchy proved even more resistant to reform than had the Catholic church directed by the papacy. It was not until after Calvin reformed the church in Geneva and began to export his brand of Protestantism that French society began to divide along religious lines.
The French wars of religion