Battle Of Saragarhi In 1897

Saragarhi was a small settlement in the border district of Kohat, located on the barren slopes of the Samana Range which happened to be the North-West Frontier Province under the British India.

The nearest permanent garrison from where British reinforcements could come was at Kohat, about 60 kilometers East of Fort Lockhart. In August and September 1897, the Pashtuns made sporadic attempts to capture the British forts but were thwarted in their attempts. On 3rd and 9th September, Afridi tribes, owing allegiance to Afghans attacked Fort Gulistan, but the attacks were repulsed by the arrival of reinforcement from Fort Lockhart.

With their failure to capture Fort Gulistan, the tribesmen decided to change their objective of attack. A large force of the Orakzai tribe along with the Afridi Lashkar turned their attention to the more vulnerable Saragarhi Post. By that time the 4th Battalion of the Sikh regiment was holding the forts.

The tribesman surrounded Saragarhi on 12 September, knowing full well that this would cut communications and troop movements between the forts of Lockhart and Gulistan. The attack on Saragarhi commenced on the morning of 12th September.

The tribesman launched a fierce and determined attack at around 9am but the approaches were well covered and the defenders held on to their post. They were repulsed with around 60 losses as the Sikhs fired upon the mass of men.

This was followed by a pitched battle of six long hours. At last, there was a lull in the gruesome battle. But it lasted only a short while. It gave the defenders time to reorganize and replenish ammunition from their depleted reserves.

The hopelessness of the situation however could not have been lost on the defenders for though one attack had been repulsed, they were completely outnumbered and the enemy was forming up to attack once again.

The tribals regrouped and attacked again, but the defenders remained resolute and held on to their positions. Attempts to send reinforcements from Fort Lockhart were thwarted by the tribals and Saragarhi remained isolated.

Charge after charge was repulsed but, in the process, the ranks of the defenders started dwindling. The attackers managed to create a smoke screen on one flank of the post by burning dry bushes. Covered from observation and fire of the defenders, two of the enemy managed to get close to the perimeter wall of the post and succeeded in making a breach in the wall, a development that was observed from Fort Lockhart and flashed to the post.

With the defenders being forced to split their small forces, the defense of the gate was weakened. The tribesman seized the opportunity to pile up the pressure and it was not long before the enemy rushed both the gate and the breach.

Thereafter, one of the fiercest hand to hand fights followed and the wounded fought with the rest, till the last drop of blood oozed out from their body and they lay still, their weapon still firmly held in their hand.

The 21 Sikhs had made a heroic last stand, and the enemy had paid a high price for their victory, with around 180 dead.

On 14 September, the post was retaken with intensive artillery fire support. The Afghans later stated that they had lost about 180 killed and many more wounded in the capture of Saragarhi.
Battle Of Saragarhi In 1897

Jahangir (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627)

Mirza Nur-ud-din Beig Mohammad Khan Salim or Jahangir was born in 1569 A.D, from Akbar's Rajput wife Mariyam-uz-Zamani. As the prince was born with the blessings of Sheikh Salim Chishti so Akbar named him Salim after the name of the saint.

The prince was given the best possible education. Expert tutors taught the prince Persian, Turki, Arabic, Hindi, arithmetic, history, and geography, but he was most influenced by Abdur Rahim Khan Khana, a versatile genius, soldier, and successful diplomat.

In 1583 Akbar offers his sons first experience of running the Mughal Empire. He was a capable general who could plan and lead military campaigns. He successfully suppressed the revolts and conquered Mewar, Kangra and Ahmanagar, etc. Civil war marked the opening and close of the reign of Jahangir.

Jahangir continued his father’s traditions. A war with the Rajput principality of Mewar was ended in 1614 on generous terms. Campaigns against Ahmadnagar, initiated under Akbar’s rule, were continued fitfully, with Mughal arms and diplomacy often thwarted by the able Ḥabshī (slave), Malik ʿAmbār.

Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years of his reign. The efforts of Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, to marginalize him were unsuccessful. Civil war divided the empire for three years until a truce was called in 1625. Jahangir died in Kashmir in 1666. His son Khurram (Shah Jahan) succeeded him.
Jahangir (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627)

NUCLEAR WEAPONS, DAN ZAK, C-SPAN

Dan Zak and Helen Young appeared on C-Span.org on August 27,2016 (taped on July 25 at The Half King Literary Series, NYC)

Helen Young is a documentary filmmaker whose work in progress is "Nuclear Insecurity."
Dan Zak is the general assignment feature writer for the Washington Post. 

We have reviewed, recommended and referred to his book Almighty in Posts of Aug 2, Aug 11, Aug 25 and posted a review on Amazon



                                                                       

Mr. Zak states that he was motivated, in part, to write his book from "a sense of guilt"about not knowing more about the Nuclear Weapons issue.
This lead to the intensive research and many interviews which formed the foundation of his book.

Both discussed what we have here referred to as the "out of sight, out of mind" problem concerning the public's lack of awareness and involvement in this issue.

Mr. Zak states that when there are too many crises in the public mind it can be overwhelming for many of us.
He cites concerns over climate change, for example, which if coupled with the subject of Nuclear Weapons and the potential for humanity to be "extinguished instantly" then "people feel paralyzed." (Helen Young)

Faced with what he calls "the immensity" of this issue, people look to their leaders to deal with it. Mr. Zak found it "disturbing" that many of our representatives in Congress are ignorant regarding this urgent, imminent and dangerous threat to our lives.


                                               

    


Add to that the "highly technical" and "classified" aspects of Nuclear Weapons which make it all too "abstract" for the average citizen to deal with.


                                                   

    


Mr Zak linked the two issues of Nuclear War and Climate Change in a discussion of the potential for war between India and Pakistan caused by a future acute climate change-induced water shortage in the area. Referring to a widely cited study/model predicting over 2 billion deaths worldwide in such a war with the two adversaries detonating 100 warheads (just a portion of their robust Nuclear Arsenals) causing catastrophic climatic change and nearly global famine.


                                                   
                                                

Ominously, the NYTS has recently reported that the current violent unrest in the disputed Kashmir Province "is the most sustained and violent since 2010."
                                                 
                                                 
                                               

   



Zak and Young concluded on a note of HOPE. Mr. Zak is encouraged by a youthful European movement against Nuclear Weapons. Both are further encouraged by "legal" actions being pursued by the Marshall Island's Lawsuits against the Nuclear Weapons Nations and by the "Humanitarian Pledge" - a new and important petition, signed by 127 nations and counting, to convene a "Convention" to ban and abolish Nuclear Weapons. As Mr. Zak notes: all other weapons of mass destruction, biological, chemical, as well as landmines and cluster bombs have been banned by treaty and international law - except the most dangerous, destructive weapons of all!


                                                   

Please watch and listen to Dan Zak and Helen Young. Make the time and the effort to be informed and involved on the Nuclear Weapons threat as if our very lives depend on it. Because they do!

ABOLITION IN OUR TIME. WE ARE RUNNING OUT OF TIME



                                                    

 

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Aryan Invasion

Aryan Invasion

The conquest and settlement of northern India by Indo-Europeans began c. 1500 b.c.e. The event marked the end of the Indus civilization and altered the civilization of the subcontinent. In ancient times seminomadic peoples lived in the steppe lands of Eurasia between the Caspian and Black Seas.

They were light skinned and spoke languages that belong to the Indo-European or Indo-Aryan family. They were organized into patrilineal tribes, herded cattle, knew farming, tamed horses and harnessed them to chariots, and used bronze weapons.

For reasons that are not clear, the tribes split up and began massive movements westward, southward, and southeastward to new lands around 2000 b.c.e., conquering, ruling over, and in time assimilating with the local populations. Those who settled in Europe became the ancestors of the Greeks, Latins, Celts, and Teutons.


Others settled in Anatolia and became known as the Hittites. Another group settled in Iran (Iran is a cognate form of the English word Aryan). The most easterly group crossed the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush into the Indus River valley on the Indian subcontinent.

Many tribes who called themselves Aryas (anglicized to Aryans) moved into India over several centuries. While there are several theories on the decline and fall of the Indus civilization, there is no doubt that the Indus cities were destroyed or abandoned around 1500 b.c.e., at about the same time that the newcomers began to settle in the Indus region.

These newcomers lived in villages in houses that did not endure. Thus, there are few archaeological remains in India of the protohistoric age between 1500–500 b.c.e. Historians must therefore rely in part on the literary traditions of the early Aryans for knowledge on the era.

The earliest oral literature of the Aryans were hymns and poems composed by priests to celebrate their gods and heroes and used in religious rites and sacrifices. They were finally written down c. 600 b.c.e., when writing was created.

This great collection of poems is called the Rig-Veda, and it is written in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. Although primarily focused on religion, there are references in the Rig-Veda to social matters and epic battles that the invaders fought and won. Some of the gods might also be deified heroes. The Rig-Veda and other later Vedas remain part of the living Hindu tradition of India.

The Aryans were initially confined to the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent but gradually spread across the north Indian plains to the Ganges River basin. By approximately 500 b.c.e. the entire northern part of the subcontinent had become part of the Aryan homeland, and Aryans dominated the earlier population.

Ashoka

King Ashoka

Ashoka (Asoka) was the third ruler of the Mauryan Empire. Under his long rule the empire that he inherited reached its zenith territorially and culturally. Soon after his death the Mauryan Empire split up and ended. He is remembered as a great ruler in world history and the greatest ruler in India.

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan dynasty in 326 b.c.e. Both he and his son Bindusara were successful warriors, unifying northern India and part of modern Afghanistan for the first time in history.

Ashoka was not Bindusara’s eldest son, and there is a gap of time between his father’s death and his succession, due perhaps to war with his brothers. Ashoka continued to expand the empire by conquering southward. One war against Kalinga in the southeast was particularly bloody and filled him with remorse.


As a result he converted to Buddhism (from Vedic Hinduism) and renounced war as an instrument of policy. He became a vegetarian, prohibited the killing of some animals, and discouraged hunting, urging people to go on pilgrimages instead. He also built many shrines in places associated with Buddha’s life. However, he honored all religions and holy men.

Ashoka’s son and daughter became Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka); Indian missionaries to the island also brought the people the advanced arts and technology of India. Around 240 b.c.e. he called the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra, his capital city, which completed the Buddhist canons and dealt with differences among the monastic orders.

Maurya empire under king Ashoka

A great deal is known about the personality and policy of Ashoka because he ordered many of his edicts, laws, and pronouncements engraved on stone pillars and rock surfaces throughout his empire and ordered his officials to read them to the public periodically as instruction.

Most of the inscriptions that survived used the Brahmi script, precursor of modern Hindi, but some were in other languages, depending on the vernacular of the district. Ten inscribed pillars survive. Different animals associated with Buddhism adorned the capital of each pillar; the one with lions (the roar of lion, heard far and wide, symbolized the importance of the Buddha’s teaching) is the symbol of modern India.

Ashoka called the people of the empire his children and said: “At all times, whether I am eating, or in the women’s apartments ... everywhere reporters are posted so that they may inform me of the people’s business .... For I regard the welfare of the people as my chief duty.”


Ashoka lightened the laws against criminals, though he did not abolish the death penalty. He also exhorted his people to practice virtue, be honest, obey parents, and be generous to servants. He forbade some amusements as immoral and appointed morality officers to enforce proper conduct among officials and the people, allowing them even to pry into the households of his relatives. Little is known of his last years.

It is also unclear who succeeded him; some sources even say that he was deposed around 232 b.c.e. In any case the Mauryan Empire soon fell into chaos and collapsed. History honors Ashoka as a remarkable man and great king. Present-day India has his lion and the wheel of Buddha’s law that adorned the capital of his inscribed pillar as symbols of the nation.

Bhagavad Gita

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is regarded as one of the most beautiful and influential of Hindu poems. The translation from Sanskrit is the “Song of God.” It forms part of chapter 6 of the Mahabharata (epic of the Bharata dynasty).

It was probably written in the first–second century c.e., which is later than that of the remainder of the Mahabharata and has an unknown author or authors. It consists of 18 verse chapters with a total of 700 verses in the Sanskrit language, each of which consists of 32 syllables.

As part of one of the great epics of Indian thought expressed in the Sanskrit language (together with the Ramayana), the Bhagavad Gita has gone on to inspire a large number of adaptations to contemporaneous settings in both oral and written forms. Its characters have become deeply loved by millions, many of whom consider them to be exemplars for everyday action.


The subject matter of the Bhagavad Gita is a lengthy conversation between Prince Arjuna, an important figure in the Mahabharata, and Krishna, who is his charioteer and also the incarnation of the god Vishnu on Earth. Krishna uses the opportunity to expound on many important theological topics for the education of both Arjuna and the audience.

The exposition is centered on, but not limited to, the concept of duty and the role that humankind is expected to play in the world. Arjuna, at the moment when the dialogue begins, is standing in the ranks of soldiers about to stage the crucial battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

He is unsure whether the forthcoming carnage is worthwhile and whether he should throw down his weapons and surrender himself to fate. Krishna advises him that it is appropriate for man to take part in a virtuous enterprise being mindful of God and without seeking earthly rewards or power as the price for participation.

The lesson expands into the ways in which humanity can know and understand God. The Hindu concept of mystic union with God is presented as a threefold approach to transcendence, through merging with the immanent spirit of the universe, through understanding God as the ultimate state of nature, and through the transcendence of the human spirit.

The physical world, in which Krishna is addressing Arjuna, and Arjuna’s interaction with the universe are both real and also a reflection of the spiritual realm in which he is expected to undertake his duties.

Lord Krishna speaks of the variety of Yogas, which are the forms of unity between self and the universe that are the true goal of the individual. The role of the individual is to become closer to union with the universe through yogic practices and meditation.

Many cogent commentaries on the work have added to the significance of the Bhagavad Gita. One of the most well known is that provided by Mohandas Gandhi, who provided a series of talks to followers over a period of some months in 1926. He used the poem to enthuse his audience with the delights and fulfillment to be found in the true performance of duty.

Many Western scholars and academics have also found inspiration in the work, including Carl Jung, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Aldous Huxley, and Hermann Hesse. It continues to have an important inspirational influence on believers in yogic faiths and for those who wish to continue the Indian tradition of argumentative discourse in the search for truth.

Buddhist Councils

Buddhist Councils

After the death of Gautama Buddha (483 b.c.e.), monks and scholars concerned with practicing the lessons he taught met several times at formal councils at which the canon of Buddhist thought was established, the rules of monastic life were agreed, and matters of dogma and ideology were debated and confirmed.

The exact number, location, and importance of the councils have been contested, but it is commonly considered that there were three early councils that were of particular importance.

The First Council

The First Buddhist Council convened shortly after the death of the Buddha. The council was attended by 500 arahants, who had already achieved nirvana, the path to enlightenment.


The council wished to itemize and systematize the teachings of the Buddha and was held at Rajagha, in the modern Indian state of Bihar. Of those present one of the most prominent was Ananda, who had attended the Buddha as companion and assistant for three decades.

It is believed that since the monks concerned were consistent practitioners of yogic disciplines, their memories were enhanced and, thus, their ability to recall lengthy speeches and lessons with some accuracy.

Ananda, for example, is said to have recited not only every word he heard from the Buddha but also the location and circumstances under which each was uttered. Others who had also been present then confirmed Ananda’s responses, where possible.

The main achievements of the first council were the assembly of the aphoristic sutras under the supervision of Ananda and the collection of the vinayas, the rules to be followed by the sangha, or monkhood, under the elder Upali.

At the first council, the Tripitaka was established and continues to be used today. The three Pitakas, or baskets, were separate receptacles in which the Buddha’s teachings were categorized into discourse, discipline, and expressions of higher knowledge.

The Second Council

The Second Buddhist Council was held approximately 100 years after the death of the Buddha. It was held at Vaisali, also in the modern Indian state of Bihar. It was convened to settle the conflict that had arisen out of an ideological difference among the sangha. This difference was not resolved and resulted in the creation of the two major schools of Buddhist thought, the Mahayana and the Theravada.

Controversy is thought to have arisen over the 10 rules (vinayas) monks were obliged to follow. These included whether it was acceptable to drink sour milk after the midday meal, using a rug of an inappropriate size, accepting gold and silver as alms, and the storage of salt. The debate centered on two interpretations of the vinayas, one of which was much stricter than the other.

It is said that the Vaisali monks were practicing a more relaxed regime of vinayas than the remainder of the sangha, and after debate their lifestyle was ruled unlawful. In return, the Vaisali faction created its own school.

This explanation ignores the issues of dogma that must have underpinned this conflict and the division between Theravada and Mahayana forms of Buddhism has little to do with the regimen to be followed by their practitioners.

The Chinese version of the original Sanskrit report created by the Mahasanghika school, which later became the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, records that the debate concerned the nature of the arahant and the relationship with the physical universe.

There is little agreement as to the exact nature of the debates that took place. However, it is clear that after the second council, Buddhists divided into a number of different sects, and unity among them was no longer possible because there was no agreement on Buddha’s teachings, nor of the order in which they were to be recited.

The Third Council

The Third Buddhist Council was held under the auspices of the great Buddhist patron King Ashoka (Asoka) at Pataliputra, which is the modern-day Patna in India, in or around 247 b.c.e. The purpose of the council convened under Ashoka’s direction was to resolve the differences between the numerous Buddhist sects that had flourished since the second council.

The council resulted in the creation of the Kathavatthu, which has become the fi fth book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. A version of the Buddha’s teaching, royally approved as the Vibhajjavada, was declared to be appropriate for the monks to learn and to recite once they sought out converts.

This doctrine followed the Theravadin school of thought. The sending out of monk evangelists under Ashoka was of considerable importance in the dissemination of the religion.

The councils represented the attempt to resolve different interpretations of dogma through discussion rather than violence, and in this, they were largely successful. By causing the assembled monks to recite the canon they held in common in unison, they focused on what united the sangha rather than what set them apart.

Caste

Caste system

Caste, or class, is English for the Sanskrit word varna, which categorizes the Hindus of India into four broad classifications. The Rig-Veda, the holiest text of Hinduism, mentions many occupations and divides the Aryan people into broad categories. For example, the Hymn of the Primeval Man in the Rig-Veda says:

When they divided the Man,
Into how many parts did they divide him?
What was his mouth, what were his arms,
What were his thighs and feet called?
The brahman was his mouth,
Of his arms was made the warrior,
His thighs became the vaisya,
Of his feet the sudra was born.

Early Aryan society already had class divisions. In India the class stratification became more rigid due to color consciousness—differences in skin color between the Indo-European Aryans and the indigenous peoples—thus the use of the word varna, which originally meant “covering,” associated with the color of the skin covering people’s bodies to differentiate the status of different categories of people.

The four varna, or broad classifications of peoples of India, were as follows:

1. Brahman: priests, teachers, and intellectuals who presided at religious ceremonies, studied, and transmitted religious knowledge.
2. Kshatriya: warriors, princes, and political leaders, the people who spearheaded the invasion and settlement of northern India and ruled the land.
3. Vaisya: landowners, artisans, and all free people of Aryan society.
4. Sudra: dasas, or indigenous people, who were dark skinned and became serfs and servants.

The idea of varna became deeply embedded in Aryan, and later Hindu, society. When Aryan religious concepts later spread to Dravidian southern India, sharp distinctions were also enforced there between the three higher (or Aryan) castes and sudras.

The three high, or Aryan, castes were called “twice born,” because of a sacred thread ceremony or religious birth as they entered manhood, which gave them access to Vedic lore and rituals. Sudras were not eligible, which justified their exclusion from certain religious rites, and their low status.

The Rig-Veda did not mention “untouchables” as a group of people. However, early Aryans were deeply concerned with ritual pollution, which was likely the origin of the Untouchables.

A subclass of Untouchables emerged, who performed “unclean” tasks, such as handling the carcasses of dead animals, tanning, and sweeping dirt and ashes from cremation grounds.

After the late Vedic age Indians defined caste much more narrowly. Besides belonging to a caste, each person belonged to a jati, which was defined as belonging to endogamous groups related by birth (marriage is only legitimate to members within the group), commensality (food can only be received between members of the same or a higher group), and craft exclusiveness (craft or profession can only be inherited; no one can take up another profession). Thus in operation the caste or class system was a combination of varna and jati systems.

Caste had its origins in the class and occupational groups in early Aryan society. It acquired a deep color consciousness as it broadened to include the people of the Indus civilization and other indigenous people the Aryans encountered as they expanded throughout northern India. It continued to develop over the succeeding centuries as a result of association between many racial groups into a single social system.

Ceylon

Ceylon was the name of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka before 1972. It is an island nation off the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent, located in the tropics.

Ceylon was also known in ancient times as Sinhale, Lanka, Lankadeepa, Simoundou, Taprobane, Serendib, and Selan. Some scholars and historians believe that Prince Vijaya migrated to Sri Lanka from Orissa, in northeastern India, sometime during the sixth century b.c.e.

Some contest the date and believe the origins date back some 25,000 years more. They believe that the Indian princes, or veddas, ruled Sri Lanka much earlier. Ceylon’s origin is discussed in the Mahavamsa, which gives a complete history of the region.


This manuscript describes the Sinhalese kingdom started by King Vijaya and his followers in the sixth century b.c.e. Vijaya’s minister, Anuradha, founded the settlement of Anuradhagamma, which later became known as Anuradhapura, and the center of government for Ceylon.

Archaeological evidence contradicts this version by unearthing evidence of continuous established settlement in the region by peoples with knowledge of animal domestication, agriculture, and the use of metals from the 10th century b.c.e. onward.

Buddhism arrived on the island in the third century b.c.e. with the coming of Arahath Mahinda Thero, a missionary of Indian emperor Ashoka. Buddhism thrived, and a sophisticated system of irrigation became the pillars of classical Sinhalese tribes from 200 b.c.e. until 1200 c.e.

Another ancient ruin of Ceylon

The origin of the Tamil presence in Ceylon is unclear. South Indian princes and kings invaded Sri Lanka on a number of occasions. Occasionally, those attacks resulted in Tamil control of the island for extended periods. Many Sinhala rulers were known for expelling the Tamil invasions and reestablishing authentic Sri Lankan rule.

Cinnamon, which is native to Sri Lanka, was in use in ancient Egypt in about 1500 b.c.e., suggesting that there were trading links with the island. A large settlement appears to have been founded before 900 b.c.e. at the site of Anuradhapura and signs of an Iron Age culture have been found there.

Ceylon was known to the Greeks and to the Romans, who called it Taprobane, probably after Tambapanni. In the first century b.c.e., the king sent an embassy to the Roman emperor Claudius.

Anuradhapura remained Sri Lanka’s royal capital until the eighth century c.e., when Polonnaruwa replaced it. Tamil people from India began to arrive in Sri Lanka as early as the third century b.c.e., and there were repeated wars between the Sinhalese and Indian invaders.

For much of the first millennium c.e., the island was controlled by various Tamil princes. The island was known to the Persians and Arabs as Serendib and features in the Sindbad stories in the famous 1001 Nights.

Chandragupta II

Chandragupta II was the third ruler of the Gupta Empire of India. He reigned when the Gupta dynasty reached its zenith of power, and Indian classical culture was at its high watermark. He ruled all northern India except the northwest and central India down to the Deccan Plateau.

The Gupta dynasty was founded in 320 c.e. when a north Indian prince named Chandragupta crowned himself Great King of Kings in the ancient Mauryan capital Pataliputra. The dynasty was consolidated by his son, Samudragupta, but reached its peak under the founder’s grandson, Chandragupta II.

Whereas the Greek ambassador Megasthenes wrote an account of India under Emperor Chandragupta Maurya in the fourth century b.c.e., a Chinese Buddhist monk named Fa Xian (Fa-hsien) did so for fifth-century c.e. India.


Fa Xian traveled around India for six years during Chandragupta II’s reign and recorded his impressions; his work, A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, has survived. He found Pataliputra a rich city where hospitals provided care for the poor without charge. Buddhism still flourished, but Hinduism was regaining vitality.

He also noted the presence of Untouchables on the edges of cities, carrying out menial tasks and having to sound gongs as they walked to warn others of their polluting presence. He admired the piety and prosperity of Indians and the leniency of Indian laws.

Gupta empire map

A passage from his work said: “The king governs without decapitation or [other] corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined, lightly or heavily, according to the circumstances [of each case] ... Throughout the country the people do not kill any living things, nor eat onion or garlic ... they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the market there are no butchers’ shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink ... [In the towns] the inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness.”

The Gupta era was noted for its artistic refinement, the excellence of its bronze sculptures, and architecture, including magnificent temples and cave temples.

Indian merchants and missionaries traveled widely by sea in Southeast Asia and by land via the Silk Road to Central Asia and China. Chandragupta II’s reign represented the apogee of the Gupta dynasty.